Life History of the White Palm Bob

Life History of the White Palm Bob (Suastus everyx everyx)

Butterfly Biodata:
Genus: Suasus Moore, 1881
Species: everyx Mabille, 1883
Sub-species: everyx Mabille, 1883
Wingspan of Adult Butterfly: 24-28mm
Caterpillar Local Host Plant: Daemonorops augustifolia (Arecaceae; common name: Water Rattan Palm).

Physical Description of Adult Butterfly:

The adults are diminutive in size. Above, the wings are brown and typically unmarked. In some female specimens, small white spots might be present in space 2 and the cell in the forewing. In the hindwing, the tornal area and tornal cilia are white. Underneath, the wings are brown and overlaid with buff scaling. In the hindwing, the lower two-thirds are white with several dark spots of varying sizes. The abdomen is brown and white banded.

Field Observations of Butterfly Behaviour:

The White Palm Bob is rare in Singapore. Sightings are rather localized to a forested area in a reservoir park. They are usually found flying in the deep shaded area near ground level. At times, they are also sighted puddling on wet ground and on bird droppings.

Early Stages:

Thus far only one local host plant, the Water Rattan Palm, has been established for White Palm Bob. This plant is rather common in the forested area where the species resides. The caterpillars feed on leaves of the host plant and live in leaf shelters. In all instars, the caterpillar builds tent-like shelter on the underside of a leaflet by cutting and joining leaf fragments. As the caterpillar grows in size later through progressing instars, it will construct ever larger shelters. In the final instar, two adjacent leaflets are typically used as a larger shelter is necessary for housing the much larger larval body.

Local host plant: Daemonorops augustifolia (Water Rattan Palm).

The eggs are laid singly on the upper surface of a leaflet of the host plant. Each shallow dome-shaped egg is wine red with yellowish to whitish longitudinal ridges emanating from the polar region where the micropylar is sited. The eggs are rather small with a diameter of about 1mm.

A far view of an egg laid on the leaflet of the Water Rattan Palm.

Two views of an egg of the White Palm Bob, diameter: 1mm.

It takes about 4 days for the egg to hatch. The egg decolorises to yellowish brown colour when fully mature on the last day of this phase. The young caterpillar eats just enough of the shell to emerge. Its golden yellow body has a length of about 2mm. There is a tuff of moderately long setae on the posterior segment. The head is comparatively large and is yellowish brown in colour.

A sequence of three views of a mature egg on the last day of the oval stage.

Two views of a newly hatched caterpillar taking a bite of its egg shell.

Two views of a newly hatched caterpillar, length: 2.1mm.

After emerging from the egg, the caterpillar makes only a weak attempt at eating the egg shell remnant before moveing on to the leaf edge to construct its first leaf shelter. Its body takes on a slight green undertone after a few feeding sessions near its shelter. The 1st instar takes a total of 3 days to complete with body length reaching about 4mm.

Two views of a 1st instar caterpillar, length: 3.6mm.

Top: the leaf shelter of a 1st instar caterpillar. Bottom: the same leaf shelter opened to show the resident caterpillar.

The body of the 2nd instar caterpillar is yellow with a green undertone and the head capsule is pale yellowish brown. The tuff of moderately long setae at the posterior end is now absent, being replaced by a few short setae. This instar lasts a total of 3-4 days with the body length reaching up to 6mm.

A newly moulted 2nd instar caterpillar, length: 3mm.

Two views of a 2nd instar caterpillar, length: 5.5mm.

In the 3rd instar, the body colour decolorises from yellow to whitish as growth progresses. The head is paler in coloration compared to the earlier instars. This instar lasts a total of 4-5 days with the body length reaching 8-9mm.

Top: late 2nd instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult. Bottom: newly moulted 3rd instar caterpillar.

Two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar, length: 7mm.

The 4th instar ushers in an obvious change in the head capsule where the base colour is now pale brown to white and there are numerous brown spots dotting the lateral sides. The body is also adorned with numerous tiny, white spots and a faint, narrow, whitish, lateral band runs along lengthwise. This penultimate instar lasts 4-5 days with the body length reaching 12-14mm.

Top: leaf shelter of a White Palm Bob caterpillar. Middle: the same leaf shelter opened to review a late 3rd instar caterpillar. Bottom: the same caterpillar newly moullted to the 4th instar.

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar, length: 11mm.

As in the 4th instar, the body of the 5th instar caterpillar is mostly translucent with numerous, tiny, white spots and has a white lateral band running lengthwise. The head capsule is also similar to those in the 4th instar except that the contrast between white base colour and the brown spots are now much more prominent. The periphery of the head capsule is marked in brown.

Top: leaf shelter of a White Palm Bob caterpillar. Middle: the same leaf shelter opened to review a late 4th instar caterpillar. Bottom: the same caterpillar newly moullted to the 5th instar.

Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar, late in this stage, length: 21mm.

The 5th instar takes about 7-8 days to complete with the body length reaching 21-22mm. In the last 1-2 days of this instar, the caterpillar seeks out a new site on a leaflet to construct its leaf shelter. Within the pupation shelter, a large amount of silk threads are spun and a great mass of whitish powdery substances are secreted to coat the inner surface of the shelter. Typically the pupation shelter is cut from the leaflet before the caterpillar proceeds to seal the shelter. This prepupatory phase lasts for 1.5-2 days.

Top: a detached pupation shelter. Bottom: the same shelter opened to reveal a fresh pupa.

Pupation takes place within the leaf shelter. The pupa does not have a cremastral attachment nor a silk girdle. The body is pale green in the thorax and wing pad areas, but yellow in the abdomen. As is common in the case of pupation within a closed shelter for skipper species, purged frass pallets and the exuvia and head capsule of the final instar caterpillar can be found near the posterior end of the pupa. Length of pupae: 13.5-15mm.

Two views of a pupa of the White Palm Bob, length: 13.5mm

After 8 days, the pupa becomes mostly dark brown to black as the adult development stage within its case comes to an end. Eclosion takes place the next day.

Two views of a mature pupa of the White Palm Bob.

A newly eclosed White Palm Bob.

References:

• [C&P4] The Butterflies of The Malay Peninsula, A.S. Corbet and H.M. Pendlebury, 4th Edition, Malayan Nature Society.
• Butterflies of Thailand, Pisuth Ek-Amnuay, 2nd Edition, 2012
• A Field Guide to the Butterflies of Singapore, Khew S.K., Ink On Paper Communications, 2010.

Text by Horace Tan, Photos by Nelson Ong, Loke PF, Federick Ho, Sunny Chir, Khew SK and Horace Tan.

You have read this article with the title August 2013. You can bookmark this page URL http://butterflymuse.blogspot.com/2013/08/life-history-of-white-palm-bob.html. Thanks!

Butterflies Galore! : Aberrant Oakblue

Butterflies Galore!
The Aberrant Oakblue (Arhopala abseus abseus)

The distribution of this distinctive but very small Arhopala is quite intriguing. Whilst many of its other related species are mainly forest denizens, preferring the forested and shady sanctuaries in the nature reserves, the Aberrant Oakblue has also been observed at various urban parks from Fort Canning Park, Singapore Botanic Gardens and Ang Mo Kio West Town Park, just to name a few. It is more regularly observed in forested areas where it lurks in the shaded understorey. It is also a small species but is distinctively marked compared to other Arhopalas. Another key feature is its three pairs of white-tipped tails, of which the pair at vein 3 of the hindwing is the longest.

This pristine individual, shot by ButterflyCircle member Jonathan Soong, was observed at the Singapore Zoological Gardens at Mandai. The Aberrant Oakblue is considered a moderately rare species and is usually observed singly whenever it occurs.

You have read this article with the title August 2013. You can bookmark this page URL http://butterflymuse.blogspot.com/2013/08/butterflies-galore-aberrant-oakblue.html. Thanks!

Butterflies Galore! : Lesser Harlequin

Butterflies Galore! 
The Lesser Harlequin (Laxita thuisto thuisto)

This shade-loving denizen is mainly found in the forested nature reserves of Singapore. It is considered rare and there are times when the species is not seen for long periods of time. Like the other species in the family Riodinidae, the Lesser Harlequin is often encountered flitting from leaf to leaf and twisting and turning with half opened wings. The underside is orange-brown with blue edged black spots. Males are all-black above, whilst the females have similar patterns as the underside.

Last weekend, BC members stumbled on a colony of the Lesser Harlequins where a few individuals, both males and females, were observed at a forest trail in the nature reserves. This shot of a male Lesser Harlequin was taken by ButterflyCircle member Sunny Chir.

You have read this article with the title August 2013. You can bookmark this page URL http://butterflymuse.blogspot.com/2013/08/butterflies-galore-lesser-harlequin.html. Thanks!

Butterflies Galore! : Sumatran Gem

Butterflies Galore!
The Sumatran Gem (Poritia sumatrae sumatrae)

The Sumatran Gem is a forest-dependent species and is rarely found outside the sanctuary of the deep shady habitats within the nature reserves in Singapore. It is very local in distribution, although several individuals may often be seen flying together in a small area. The underside of the butterfly is predominantly brown, with dark reddish striations. Males are more often seen than females. The male tends to open and close its wings as it flits to a new perch, but then subsequently stops and stays still with its wings folded upright unless disturbed.

The males are iridescent green on the upperside, with a thick black apical border, whilst the females are purple with dark reddish markings and borders. ButterflyCircle member Huang CJ encountered these two males side-by-side and got an opportunistic and unstaged shot, giving an interesting composition to this moderately rare species from the subfamily Poritiinae, of which there are only two representatives in Singapore.

You have read this article with the title August 2013. You can bookmark this page URL http://butterflymuse.blogspot.com/2013/08/butterflies-galore-sumatran-gem.html. Thanks!

It's a Bird! No, it's a Butterfly!!

It's a Bird! No, it's a Butterfly!!
Jays and Albatrosses


A Common Jay perches on a leaf

Recently, during a visit to the California Academy of Sciences tropical rainforest conservatory in San Francisco, a young boy next to me exclaimed to his mother, "Look, mommy, a pretty Blue Jay!". I turned around quickly, expecting to see a fast-flying individual of Graphium evemon that I am familiar with. But no, it was a bird. Pretty no doubt, but certainly a bird and not a butterfly!

A Blue Jay puddling on sandy ground

Not too long ago, I wrote a post on the common English names of some butterflies in the region, and some theories behind how the names were coined. In that article, the names mainly came from military and aristocratic titles. My recent experience in San Francisco reminded me that there are quite a few groups of butterflies that shared common English names with birds. A look at some of the literature available yielded a few groups of butterflies in Singapore that had names of birds.

A puddling Tailed Jay

This article features just two groups of them - one from the Papilionidae family and the other from the Pieridae family that has common names that may confuse these butterflies with birds! There are others, which I will leave for future articles. The first group that will be featured in today's blog post, are the Jays.

The Jays

If we google the name "Blue Jay", and look for websites or images, chances that the search will feature more bird articles and images than butterflies. In the world of ornithology, the collective group Jays refer to several species of medium-sized, usually colourful and noisy, passerine birds of the crow family, Corvidae. In the image below, an image search yielded many photos of this pretty blue bird of which there are several different species in North America and Canada.

A screen capture of images after googling "Blue Jay"

Back in our world of lepidoptera, a Blue Jay refers to the species Graphium evemon eventus a fast-flying swallowtail that is relatively common in our forested areas in Singapore. It is regularly observed puddling at muddy banks of streams. The collective term "Jay" also features two other species in Singapore - the Common Jay (Graphium doson evemonides) and the Tailed Jay (Graphium agamemnon agamemnon)

A puddling Blue Jay

The Common Jay is found more regularly on the offshore island of Pulau Ubin where its host plants, Desmos chinensis (Annonaceae, common name: Dwarf Ylang Ylang), Michelia alba (Magnoliaceae, common name: White Champaca), Polyathia longifolia var. pendula (Annonaceae, common name: False Ashoka Tree), grow quite commonly. Its life history has been recorded in our blog here.


A puddling Common Jay

The third Jay is the green-spotted Tailed Jay. A common urban butterfly, the caterpillars of this species feed on the Soursop plant, amongst several other species of alternative host plants. This species is found in urban parks and gardens as well as in the forested areas of our nature reserves. This is the largest species in the genus Graphium. Over in Malaysia, there are at least three more species of the same genus that bear the English common name "Jay".


Another puddling Tailed Jay

So the next time you are out in the field and someone shouts look at that "Jay", don't just assume that it is a butterfly that will fly past. Although in equatorial Singapore, it would be unlikely that it will be a bird! Perhaps the collector who first coined the name "Jay" for butterflies is most likely a non-local who associated the blueness of the butterfly with a bird from his home country?

The Albatrosses

The second group of bird-butterfly common name is the Albatross. Again, from the ornithological viewpoint, the Albatross belongs to the family Diomedeidae. This family features magnificent birds that are usually associated with coastal habitats. Albatrosses are among the largest of flying birds, and the Great Albatross (genus Diomedea) has the largest wingspans of any extant birds, reaching up to 12 feet (3.7 m).


A screen capture of images after googling "Albatross"

Although it is unlikely that we will encounter one of these large birds in Singapore, yelling out the name "Albatross" to a group of visiting bird watchers from temperate countries may invite curious stares and raised eyebrows! Two species of butterflies, the Striped Albatross and the Chocolate Albatross, occur here in Singapore.


A male Striped Albatross feeding on a Bidens flower

The Striped Albatross (Appias libythea olferna) is a common urban butterfly, that frequents parks and gardens on bright sunny days. The caterpillar of this species feeds on a common "weed" Cleome rutidosperma. The male butterfly is predominantly white, with black veins, whilst females have grey shaded wings. The Striped Albatross has a fast and erratic flight but is certainly less majestic than its gliding avian namesake.


A female Striped Albatross feeding on a Bidens flower

The Chocolate Albatross (Appias lyncida vasava) on the other hand, is seasonal and does not appear to be a resident species in Singapore. Up north in Malaysia, it is very common, and even seasonally abundant. During certain months of the year, the Chocolate Albatross may be observed in Singapore. At times, there may be several individuals seen together in local areas.


A male Chocolate Albatross puddling

The Chocolate Albatross is also a fast flying butterfly and in its native country Malaysia, up to 20 or more individuals have been often observed, puddling together at sandy riverbanks, together with other species of butterflies. The distinctive bright lemon yellow hindwing in the male separates it from any other species of butterflies. Females are rare and often seen feeding at flowers and flying in the forested areas.


A male Chocolate Albatross with half-opened wings basking in the sunshine

So there you have it, two groups of butterflies that share common names with our feathered friends. Although the similarities between butterfly and bird are hard to associate, it is likely that the Jays were coined as names for butterflies of the Graphium genus that are mainly blue, reminiscent of the blue coloured birds of the same name. For the Albatrosses, it is also possible that the butterflies, which are predominantly white when in flight, reminded the original author of the magnificent ocean-going birds of the northern hemisphere.

Text by Khew SK : Photos by Chng CK, Huang CJ, Khew SK, Koh CH, Bobby Mun & Anthony Wong

You have read this article with the title August 2013. You can bookmark this page URL http://butterflymuse.blogspot.com/2013/08/it-bird-no-it-butterfly.html. Thanks!

Down Memory Lane - Orange Gull

Down Memory Lane
The Orange Gull (Cepora iudith malaya)

The Orange Gull is a distinctive Pierid in that the whole of the underside of the hindwing is yellow with the tornal area dark orange and brown marginal borders.  It is not likely to be confused with any other species in the family when at rest.  On the upperside the wings are predominantly white with black veins but the tornal half of the hindwing is a bright yellow. The species is often observed puddling at sand banks with other butterflies.

This species was recorded in Singapore by the early authors, and has been described in C&P4 as "widely distributed on the plains in Malaya, occurring from the Langkawi Islands in the north to Pulau Ubin and Singapore in the south." However, the Orange Gull has not been reliably seen in Singapore since the early 90's, and there has been no sign of it on Pulau Ubin either. It is not known why this relatively common Pierid disappeared from Singapore. Will it be back here again one day? Or will it remain only in our memories and is gone forever from Singapore?

This is the 500th post on this blog.

You have read this article with the title August 2013. You can bookmark this page URL http://butterflymuse.blogspot.com/2013/08/down-memory-lane-orange-gull.html. Thanks!

Butterflies Galore!

Butterflies Galore!
The Fluffy Tit (Zeltus amasa maximinianus)

Bird droppings and other mammalian excretions appear to contain nutrition that some butterflies like to feed on. In the forests, we have often seen butterflies, especially some Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae, feeding greedily on bird droppings. Even when disturbed, a hungry butterfly will return repeatedly to its precious food source.

This Fluffy Tit was photographed feeding on this bird dropping on a leaf last Sunday by ButterflyCircle member Goh EC. The butterfly was quite tame, staying still for periods of time just feeding. At times, it turned around repeatedly, and continued feeding, almost as if it was looking for a better spot to get more nutrients from the bird dropping.

You have read this article with the title August 2013. You can bookmark this page URL http://butterflymuse.blogspot.com/2013/08/butterflies-galore.html. Thanks!

Life History of the Tree Flitter

Life History of the Tree Flitter (Hyarotis adrastus praba)

Butterfly Biodata:
Genus: Hyarotis Moore, 1881
Species: adrastus Stoll, 1780
Sub-species: praba Moore, 1865
Wingspan of Adult Butterfly: 34-38mm
Caterpillar Local Host Plant: Daemonorops augustifolia (Arecaceae; common name: Water Rattan Palm).

Physical Description of Adult Butterfly:

Above, the wings are dark brown with the forewing adorned with white hyaline spots in the cell-end and spaces 2, 3, subapical spots in spaces 6,7 and 8, and another in space 1b. Underneath, the wings are dark brown with an irregular white discal fascia on the hindwing. The cilia are chequered on both wings. The antenna has a white patch below the apicus.

A sun-bathing Tree Flitter.

A newly eclosed Tree Flitter with partially open wings.

A Tree Flitter taking nectar from Syzygium flowers.

Field Observations of Butterfly Behaviour:

The Tree Flitter is moderately rare in Singapore. Infrequent sightings are restricted to the edges of the nature reserve and at times in urban parks and gardens. The adults are fast flyers and zipped around rapidly at close to ground level most of the time. They have been observed to visit flowers and sunbath in sunny weather, and to puddle on bird dropping.

A Tree Flitter taking nectar from a flower of Asystasia gangetica.

A Tree Flitter taking nectar from an Ixora flower.

A Tree Flitter taking minerals from bird dropping.

Early Stages:

Across its wide range of distribution in Asia, the Tree Flitter is known to be polyphagous. So far only one local host plant, Daemonorops augustifolia, has been established for the Tree Flitter. This rattan palm is widely distributed in the nature reserve.

Local host plant: Daemonorops augustifolia.

The caterpillars of the Tree Flitter feed on leaves of the host plant in all instars, and conceal itself in leaf shelters between feeding sessions. In all instars, the caterpillar constructs its shelter on a leaflet by spinning multiple transverse silk threads to create a trough-like cavity, and then securing an adjacent leaflet over it for concealment. The caterpillar ventures out of this shelter periodically to feed on the lamina of both leaflets involved.

The leaf shelter of a 2nd instar Tree Flitter caterpillar found in the field.

The eggs are laid singly on the upper surface of a leaflet of the host plant. Each shallow dome-shaped egg is golden yellow initially but small reddish, irregularly shaped patches appear on the 2nd day. Numerous shallow longitudinal ridges emanating from the micropylar sitting atop. The egg is rather large with a diameter of about 1.3mm.

A far view of an egg of the Tree Flitter laid on the upperside of a leaflet.

Two views of an egg of the Tree Flitter, diameter: 1.3mm.

It takes 4-5 days for the egg to hatch. The egg decolorsies to milky white when fully mature on the last day of this phase. The young caterpillar eats just enough of the shell to emerge, and it proceeds to nibble away the remaining egg shell after that. The newly hatched has a length of about 3mm. Its pale yellowish body is cylindrical in shape and a tuff of moderately long white setae can be found on the posterior end. Its head is black and adjoined with a black collar mark on the dorsum of the prothorax.

A sequence of three views showing the mature egg (left), larval head through hole (center) and remnant of the egg shell.

A Tree Flitter caterpillar emerges from its egg shell.

Two views of a newly hatched caterpillar of the Tree Flitter, length: 3mm.

After consuming the egg shell, the newly hatched caterpillar constructs its first leaf shelter typically on the underside of the same leaflet of the palm frond. Its body takes on a strong green undertone after a few feeding sessions on the leaf. The 1st instar takes a total of 5-6 days to complete with body length reaching about 6.5mm.

Two views of a 1st instar caterpillar, late in this stage, length: 6.2mm.

A late 1st instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult, length: 6.2mm.

The unmarked body of the 2nd instar caterpillar is pale yellowish with a strong green undertone. The head capsule is now dark brown, and the black collar mark is no longer present. Those long setae present on the posterior segment in the 1st instar are replaced by short setae. This instar lasts a total of 5-6 days with the body length reaching 9-10mm.

Two views of a 2nd instar caterpillar, newly moulted, length: 6mm.

Two views of a 2nd instar caterpillar, length: 8.5mm.

A late 2nd instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult, length: 9mm.

The 3nd instar caterpillar resembles the 2nd instar caterpillar closely. In some specimens, the dark brown head capsule shows signs of slight decolorisation to a paler shade of brown laterally. This instar lasts a total of 5-6 days with the body length reaching 15-20 mm.

Two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar, newly moulted, length: 10mm.

Two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar, length: 12mm.

A late 3rd instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult, length: 15mm.

The 4th (penultimate) instar caterpillar typically has its dark brown head capsule adorned with large pale brown lateral patches. Its body has two faint and whitish dorso-lateral bands running lengthwise. This penultimate instar lasts 6-7 days with the body length reaching 26-28mm.

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar, early in this stage, length: 19mm.

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar, length: 24mm.

A late 4th instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult, length: 26mm.

The leaf shelter of a 4th instar caterpillar observed in the field.

The body of the 5th instar caterpillar appears to be more whitish than in the earlier instars. Both dorso-lateral whitish bands are now broader and more prominent. The most drastic change going into the final instar is in the head capsule which has become mostly pale biege brown marked with a pale brown or dark brown stripe on both sides of the coronal sulcus. In some specimens, the periphery of the head capsule is outlined in dark brown. The 5th instar takes about 9-10 days to complete with the body length reaching up to 38-40mm.

Two views of a newly moulted 5th instar caterpillar, with hardly noticeable lateral brown stripes on the head, length: 28.5mm.

Two views of another 5th instar caterpillar, late in this stage, length: 34mm.

Another final instar caterpillar with its lateral stripes on the head in dark brown to black.

In the last day of the final instar, the caterpillar seeks out a new site on the underside of a leaflet to construct its pupation shelter. At this stage, its body changes color to beige brown with a purplish/pinkish undertone, and a moderate amount of whitish powdery substance is excreted to line the inner surface of the shelter. The semi-open shelter is simply a trough constructed with two to three transverse silk bands bringing the two edges sufficiently close (but not together). Unlike the shelters used earlier, the pupation shelter is not concealed with another leaflet secured over the exposed area. The caterpillar enters the immobile pre-pupatory phase once it has constructed a short transverse silk band near the posterior end and a silk girdle across its anterior abdominal segments. This prepupatory phase lasts about 1 day.

A sequence of three views: early pre-pupa (top), immobile pre-pupa (middle) and fresh pupa (bottom) of a Tree Flitter caterpillar.

The pupation event of a Tree Flitter caterpillar.

Pupation takes place within the leaf shelter. The pupa is secured with the silk girdle and a cremastral attachment to the short transverse silk band constructed during the early pre-pupal phase. Its body is bright yellowish brown adorned with a dorsal series of small dark spots flanked by two series of short yellowish streaks. Further out, there is a dorso-lateral series of yellowish steraks. The body surface is also coverd with numerous small brown specks. The pupa has a short thorax, a rather long abdomen, and a long pointed rostrum. Length of pupae: 30-32mm.

Two views of a pupa of the Tree Flitter.

After 7.5-8 days, the pupa becomes mostly black as the adult development stage within its case comes to an end. Eclosion takes place the next day.

Two views of a mature pupa of the Tree Flitter.

A newly eclosed Tree Flitter resting near its pupal case.

References:

• [C&P4] The Butterflies of The Malay Peninsula, A.S. Corbet and H.M. Pendlebury, 4th Edition, Malayan Nature Society.
• Butterflies of Thailand, Pisuth Ek-Amnuay, 2nd Edition, 2012.
• A Photographic Monograph on Hong Kong's Butterflies, Volume 1, Hong Kong Lepidopterists' Society, pages 18-19, 2007.
• A Field Guide to the Butterflies of Singapore, Khew S.K., Ink On Paper Communications, 2010.

Text by Horace Tan, Photos by Bobby Mun, Koh Cher Hern, Loke PF, Nelson Ong, Anthony Wong, Federick Ho, Khew SK and Horace Tan.

You have read this article with the title August 2013. You can bookmark this page URL http://butterflymuse.blogspot.com/2013/08/life-history-of-tree-flitter.html. Thanks!